Tag: caitrionabalfe

Posted on

Anatomy Lesson #53: Dr. Abernathy Meets “Pretty Lady”

Greetings, anatomy students! Several of you have asked for an exploration of the “skeleton scene” shown in Outlander episode 305, Whiskey and Freedom. Although Anatomy Lesson #39, Dem Bones – Human Skeleton, examined the entire human skeleton, this lesson focuses on skeletal analysis performed by Dr. Abernathy with input from Dr. Claire. 

 The “skeleton scene” is a great adaptation of Chapter 20, “Diagnosis,” from Voyager book, by Diana Gabaldon. So, put on your forensic cap and let’s begin with a summary of that scene.

Here, the anthropology office at Harvard seeks Dr. Abernathy’s expertise to determine cause of death using skeletal remains. In the book, the skeleton arrives at his office in a box labelled “PICT-SWEET CORN.” I remember that brand!  

In the episode, bones are laid out on a desk top (Image A). From Voyager:

 Horace Thompson was probably someone from the coroner’s office, I thought. Sometimes they brought bodies to Joe that had been found in the countryside, badly deteriorated, for an expert opinion as to the cause of death. This one looked considerably deteriorated.“

…from the anthropology department at Harvard,” he said… “asked me would I have a look at this skeleton, to tell them what I could about it.”

Image A

Dr. Abernathy reaches into the box and removes the skull (Image B).

Image B

 Examining the skull, the good doctor concludes it belonged to a pretty lady who was mature and middle-aged (Image C). And, from Voyager:

As the saying goes, “Pretty is as pretty does.” The owner of this skull definitely did not do pretty things! 😳

“Oh, pretty,” he said in delight, turning the object gently to and fro. “Pretty” was not the first adjective that struck me; the skull was stained and greatly discolored, the bone gone a deep streaky brown. Joe carried it to the window and held it in the light, his thumbs gently stroking the small bony ridges over the eye sockets. “Pretty lady,” he said softly, … “Full-grown, mature. Maybe late forties, middle fifties.”

Image C

Clairvoyant Claire picks up the skull, which speaks to her (Image D).  Well, not really –  that would be weird – though Hallowe’en does draw nigh! Another quote from Voyager:

Then I held it close against my stomach, eyes closed, and felt the shifting sadness, filling the cavity of the skull like running water. And an odd faint sense—of surprise?

“Someone killed her,” I said. “She didn’t want to die.”

Image D

Dr. Abernathy fixes Dr. Claire with a gimlet eye. Lady Jane, have you lost your scalpels???  After all, how could she possibly conjure such details using a touchy-feely method of scientific inquiry? Well, the lass does harbor some awesome powers that seem to grow with time (Image E)? Again, from Voyager:

… “Where did you find her?” I asked….

“She’s from a cave in the Caribbean,” he said. “There were a lot of artifacts with her. We think she’s maybe between a hundred-fifty and two hundred years old.”

Image E

Next, Dr. Abernathy plucks two pieces of bone from the corny box (Image F). “You were right,” he says. Looking at them, he observes that the fracture plane runs through the centrum, although he doesn’t identify which bone has been fractured. 

Voyager book reveals the fractured bone as a vertebra (bone of spine) – more specifically, it is the axis, aka the second cervical vertebra (C2).

The wide body of the axis had a deep gouge; the posterior zygapophysis had broken clean off, and the fracture plane went completely through the centrum of the bone.

Joe’s finger moved over the line of the fracture plane. “See here? The bone’s not just cracked, it’s gone right there. Somebody tried to cut this lady’s head clean off. With a dull blade,” he concluded with relish.

Image F

Then, Dr. Abernathy notes that although the burial site was a cave filled with slave artifacts, this lady was not a slave! He points to two leg bones (Image G), the tibia (Anatomy Lesson #9, The Gathering or Boar Gore) and the femur (Anatomy Lesson #7, Jamie’s Thighs or Ode to Joy!).  Ahhh, Claire sagely nods, “the crural index.” Back to Voyager, again:

“Not a slave,” he said… “No,” Joe said flatly. He tapped the long femur, where it rested on his desk. His fingernail clicked on the dry bone. “She wasn’t black.”

“Take a look at this,” Joe invited. “You can see the differences in a lot of bones, but especially in the leg bones. Blacks have a completely different femur-to-tibia ratio than whites do. And that lady”—he pointed to the skeleton on his desk—“ was white. Caucasian. No question about it.”

…“If you want to think blacks and whites are equal under the skin, be my guest, but it ain’t scientifically so.” He turned and pulled a book from the shelf behind him. Tables of Skeletal Variance, the title read.

Image G

 OK, that pretty much summarizes the salient scientific points of this scene, although I see three issues that warrant comment:

      • Can bones reveal sex, age and/or beauty of the owner? 
      • Does the fractured bone match with “pretty lady’s” death? 
      • Can crural index determine race? 

Issue #1: Can bones reveal sex, beauty and/or age of the owner?

The answer is a qualified yes. 

When Claire arrives at the office, Dr. Abernathy has already laid out most of the skeleton and presumably, has already examined each of these bones. It’s pretty iffy to hazard a reliable guess with one measurement. But, if a series of measurements tend to fall within a given range, a forensic scientist can venture an educated guess. So, assuming he examined the skull and pelvis, then sex can be surmised with a resonable degree of confidence. Here’s why.

Sex & Skull: “Typical” female and male skulls exhibit differences (Image H). A female skull is usually smaller, with rounder orbits (red dot), prominent frontal eminences (yellow dot), smaller mandible (pink dot), less prominent temporal lines (green dot), smaller brow ridges (dark blue dot), and less pronounced glabella (turquoise dot), and the brow ridges are sharper. There are also other, more subtle differences, but understand that not all skulls show all structural differences, regardless of genetic sex.

Image H

Sex & Pelvis: The bony pelvis also supplies important clues to sex. “Pretty lady’s” bony pelvis lies in three pieces (two hip bones plus sacrum). The pelvic width, shape of sacrum, sub-pubic angle and shape of obturator foramen (two front holes) are consistent with a female pelvis (Image I – obturator foramen not labeled).  Pelvic inlet and outlet are difficult to demonstrate in a dissembled bony pelvis but, assembled they would be similar to those shown in Image I, lower figure. Ergo, pretty lady’s pelvic features are consistent with those of a female.

Age:  Age can be estimated if cranial sutures (sites where cranial bones meet) are thin, bony ends are fused to bone shafts (growth plates are ossified), teeth are mature and bones are hard, along with the presence of wear-and-tear diseases, etc. So, yes, with careful analysis, general age can be estmated. Presumably, Dr. Abernathy considered these before Claire’s arrival. So far, so good!

Beauty:  As we all ken, beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Dr. Abernathy expresses an opinion when he dubs the owner a “pretty lady.” Of course, he cannot know how flesh draped those bones, but he considers the skull to be delicate and beautiful to his practiced eye. This is a subjective response on his part, but it is arguably consistent with the appearance of the skull which is delicate with good teeth. Nowadays, forensic scientists can reconstruct a face using computer programs, or the older clay sculpting technique. 

Thus, sex and age can be assessed with a fair degree of confidence if and only if multiple measurements and observations are considered, collectively. But, as beauty remains in the eye of the beholder, this issue receives a qualified yes.

Image I

Issue #2: Does the fractured bone match with “pretty lady’s” death? 

Because I have some issues with this issue, the answer is mostly yes for the book, but no for the episode. Here’s why. 🤓

Dr. Abernathy holds up a wee bone, which is broken vertically into two nearly symmetrical pieces. Voyager identifies these fragments as belonging to the axis. The axis is one of seven neck bones (numbered 1-7 from skull downwards); it is also designated as C2, meaning it is second of the seven cervical vertebrae. The purpose of cervical vertebrae is to support the head and supply flexibility to the neck, augmenting movements of the head and shoulders.

Voyager book states:

The wide body of the axis had a deep gouge; the posterior zygapophysis had broken clean off, and the fracture plane went completely through the centrum of the bone.

Although the bone fragments of shown in episode 305 are supposed to represent a vertebra, the fragments do not  appear to be an axis. The axis is an atypical, weird-looking bone (Image J – gif):

Image J

However, please appreciate that the axis is a splendid bone, allowing us to rotate our head from side-to-side in a “no-no” gesture (Anatomy Lesson #12 Claire’s Neck – the Ivory Tower!). 

Try this: Cervical vertebrae are buried rather deeply in the neck and difficult to demonstrate. But, if you able, sit up straight with chin level, place a finger in the groove of your neck just below the skull. You may feel a small bulge under your fingers. This is the spine of the axis. 

Let’s examine the parts of the axis (Image K – front view) to help us understand the quote from Voyager.

  • The axis has a robust body, located at its front surface.
  • Inside the body is a centrum, a remnant of embryonic development. You cannot see the centrum from the surface.
  • Dens is a tooth-like structure perched atop the body.
  • Superior articular facets (aka superior zygapophyseal processes) are flat surfaces where C2 forms joints with C1 above.
  • Inferior articular facets (aka inferior zygapophyseal processes) are flat surfaces where C2 forms joints with C3 below.
  • Joints are sites where movement occurs between bones – between vertebral facets these are called zygapophyseal joints.

To reiterate, Voyager book states:

The wide body of the axis had a deep gouge; the posterior zygapophysis had broken clean off, and the fracture plane went completely through the centrum of the bone.

Analysis: The book statement is a wee bit awkward because if the fracture plane passed through the centrum, it must necessarily cleave the body, so a deep gouge would not have been left to discern.

Also our vertebrae don’t have posterior zygapophyses – I suspect Diana intended inferior rather than posterior. Assuming this is correct, then: The dull blade cut horizontally (as in cutting off a head), breaking off the inferior zygapophyses (forming zygapophyseal joints with C3), and passing through the axial body and its centrum. Otherwise, the description makes sense.

One may also conclude, the blade must have passed through the lower part of the axis. Had the blade passed through its upper part, the stroke would have sheared off dens and superior zygapophyses but completely missed the centrum! Make sense? Yay! 👏🏻👏🏻👏🏻

Image K

Conclusion: Dr. Abernathy holds two bony fragments of the fractured bone and I think, hum… that ring of bone appears to have been cleaved in halves by a vertical blow (Image L)! The only way a vertical fracture could occur is if the blade sliced downward, vertically cleaving the skull and its supporting cervical vertebrae. Gah! I think you will agree, this is pretty unlikely plus, the skull remains intact. So, no vertical swipe of the blade!

Ergo, although dramatic and interesting, the bone fragments do not reflect the axis damage as described in Voyager or by episodic Dr. Abernathy. Now, does all this keep me up at night? Hardly – I loved this scene despite its wee anatomical issues!

Image L

Issue #3: Can crural index determine race? 

The answer is a qualified no.

This topic is a super sticky-wicket but very important to consider, so bear with me.

Best start with a definition: the crural index, established in 1933, is the ratio of tibia-to-femur (not femur-to-tibia, as this yields different results). The formula to determine crural index is:

 (length of tibia x 100) / length of femur  OR  

(length of tibia/length of femur) x 100

Using this ratio, many studies showed that individuals of African descent had higher crural indices than those of European descent. Image M is a simplified, summary version of such findings.

In 1968, Dr. Abernathy was positive that a low crural index meant “pretty lady” was white….“No doubt about it.”

(BTW, I am pretty sure Claire pronounces this “cruel index;” but, it should be crural <kru-ral>, from the Latin crus meaning “leg”)

Image M

So, can race be determined from the crural index?

When I started graduate school in 1965, we were taught there were three human races: negroid, caucasoid, mongoloid. Fast forward 52 years and much has changed! Today, many biologists say race cannot be determined from bones because there is no such thing as race. These scientists posit that all living humans belong to one species (Image N): Homo sapiens sapiens (the second sapiens denotes the subspecies – that would be us).

Many designate the term ancestry, because race and even ethnicity have confusing connotations and definitions. Furthermore, they point out, more genetic variations can occur within “racial” groups than between them, meaning findings are limited by the sample studied. What a conundrum!

Just to clarify, some bony physical traits are characteristic of ancestry and can be traced to a particular global location. But, bear in mind, people of mixed ancestry may present features which do not fall neatly into any category. Also, humans are so similar that all bone morphologies are present in all  groups, just at varying rates. Despite such variations, skeletal analysis remains part and parcel of human identification especially when numerous skeletal measurements are obtained. Today, using calipers, x-rays, microscopy, DNA, and a mess of other tools, some of which were unavailable in 1968, forensic researchers can make reasoned guesses as to a person’s ancestry based on skeletal remains.

Summary: Nowadays, before a scientist suggests ancestry based on skeletal remains, (s)he makes multiple measurements, never relying on just one. And, prudent scientists avoid stating “we are sure” (even if they are). Instead, they posit, the data suggests or indicates or is consistent with or is likely. Verra prudent!

Hence the qualified “no” regarding the crural index; it is only one skeletal measurement and insufficient to make a judgement if a person was white or a not. However, Voyager accurately expresses views prevalent in the 1960’s. Make sense? Ta da!

Image N 

Bottom line:

    • Today’s competent (my word) scientist cannot/will not declare ancestry using a single skeletal measurement such as crural index. 👎🏻
    • Cutting (hah) Dr. Abernathy some slack, his surety about the skeleton’s “race” was suitable and justifiable for his time (1968), but untenable for ours (Image O)!

Image O

So, this concludes a brief analysis of the “skeleton scene.”  Much more could be added, but would likely be too technical for most students. Hopefully, this summary was enlightening and will generate some thoughtful discussion and consideration in our ever expanding Outlander world. Buh-bye, pretty lady!

Ode to Pretty Lady

Your bones tell a tale.

Who are you?

Were you well?

Were you pretty?

Were you witty?

Were you sweet?

Did you cheat?

Were you bad?

Were you sad?

Or, were you mad?

Your bones tell a tale.

No Spoilers! Who are you “pretty lady?” Mayhap, we will find out during Outlander S.3!

The deeply grateful,

Outlander Anatomist

Follow me on:

Photo Credits: Sony/Starz (Images A-G, L, O), Clinically Oriented Anatomy by Moore and Dalley, 5th edition (Image K), www.pinterest.com (Image H), www.medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com (Image I), www.premiersourceshopping.com (Image O), www.slideshare.net (Image M), www.wikipedia.com (Image J – gif)

Posted on

Father James

Perhaps this post should wait for Father’s Day, but that holiday remains months away and Outlander S.3 is bursting with Jamie’s fatherhood. Patriarch, dad, daddy, dada, da, pa, padre, pop, pappy, papa, poppa, paterfamilias and sire; whichever title you use to address fathers, each applies to Jamie.

Jamie is father to many – his own biological offspring as well as foster son, Fergus. He is also the prototype of a father many dream of having: intelligent, patient, loyal, dependable, steady, strong, firm, confident, protective, and loving.

Lord John Grey provides a sage description of Jamie’s power as a father (Voyager book):

“Jamie—” he said, putting his hand on Fraser’s shoulder. The Scot swung round, his features hastily readjusting themselves, but not fast enough to hide the misery in his eyes. He stood still, looking down at the Englishman.

“You’re right to go,” Grey said. Alarm flared in Fraser’s eyes, quickly supplanted by wariness.

“Am I?” he said.

“Anyone with half an eye could see it,” Grey said dryly. “If anyone ever actually looked at a groom, someone would have noticed long before now.” …

“Some sires stamp their get. I have the distinct impression that any offspring of yours would be unmistakable.”

 

Each of Jamie’s children are indelibly stamped by his genetic legacy. One look at his beautiful children and tears spill.

Starz episode 207, Faith

FAITH (Dragonfly in Amber book)

“She was perfect,” I said softly, as though to myself. “So small. I could cup her head in the palm of my hand. Her ears stuck out just a little—I could see the light shine through them. The light had shone through her skin as well, glowing in the roundness of cheek and buttock with the light that pearls have; still and cool, with the strange touch of the water world still on them. “Mother Hildegarde wrapped her in a length of white satin,” I said, looking down at my fists, clenched in my lap. “Her eyes were closed. She hadn’t any lashes yet, but her eyes were slanted. I said they were like yours, but they said all babies’ eyes are like that.” Ten fingers, and ten toes. No nails, but the gleam of tiny joints, kneecaps and fingerbones like opals, like the jeweled bones of the earth itself. Remember man, that thou art dust.…

 

Starz, episode 301 The Battle Joined

BREE: (Dragonfly in Amber book)

“How long … did you hate me?”

Gold eyes met blue ones, innocent and ruthless as the eyes of a falcon. “Until you were born. When I held you and nursed you and saw you look up at me with your father’s eyes.”

…“And then I began to know you, something separate from myself or from Jamie. And I loved you for yourself, and not only for the man who fathered you.”

 

Starz, episode 304 Of Lost Things

Willie: (Voyager book)

He swallowed, and saw the reflection’s throat move. It was by no means a complete resemblance, but it was definitely there. More in the set and shape of the head and shoulders, as Lady Grozier had observed—but most definitely the eyes as well. Fraser eyes; his father, Brian, had had them, and his sister, Jenny, as well. Let the boy’s bones go on pressing through his skin; let the child-snub nose grow long and straight, and the cheekbones still broader—and anyone would be able to see it

 

Father that he is, Jamie has the courage to protect his children by doing what must be done. And, suffers a father’s grief over the loss of his children! Will he ever see his beloved offspring again?

Starz, episode 304 Of Lost Things

 

Haiku to Father James

Leaving his children.

Trust in another’s keeping –

Will it ever end?

 

A deeply grateful,

Outlander Anatomist

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Posted on

Anatomy Lesson 5: “Claire’s Skin” – “Ivory, Opal and White Velvet”

Greetings, followers of Outlander Anatomy! Today’s Anatomy Lesson #5:  The Skin – Part 1 is extraordinarily important (as are all anatomy lessons) and ye wouldn’t want to get skinned for skipping what is vital to yer own well-being as we learn about our skin!

WARNING! This post includes spoiler alerts and the image of a dissected human body. If you are a bit squeamish about such images, you may want to skip it. Dougal will give ye a second warning just prior!

OK, now, about skin….Herself writes about skin throughout all of the Outlander books where it is used to define characters, enhance scenes, and provide a substrate for Claire’s practice of medicine. As ye ken, the Starz Outlander series and the books are told in the voice of Claire, our braw and lovely heroine! Thus, we must rely on images or observations made by others to inform us as about Claire’s skin which I will use to segue into today’s anatomy lesson!

Let us begin…

In Starz episode 1, Sassenach, we see Claire and Frank driving through the Scottish countryside. On a second honeymoon, they are trying to reconnect after serving apart in WW II. We see that Claire has very pale, clear skin framed by a mass of curly, brown hair.

image

Herself informs us through polished, sophisticated and urbane Frank that Claire’s ”…skin glows like ivory.” Then Frank makes love to Claire in the grass at the base of Craigh na Dun where he tells her that her skin is like white velvet. Because I don’t have images to match these descriptions, I substitute one from a later episode (Starz episode 6, The Garrison Commander), so along with Frank, we may witness Claire and her beautiful skin!

image

Next, in a very telling scene from Starz episode 3, The Way Out, Mrs. Fitz helps bathe and dry Claire despite to her protestations; Claire avers that she is able to tend to her own ablutions! But a persistent Mrs. Fitz kindly observes:

Such beautiful skin ya’ have! I’ve never seen a woman past 8 or 9 with skin so unmarked by injury or illness. Yer next husband will be a lucky man!

Aye, that he will…chuckle!

image

To me, Claire’s beautiful skin is most telling (Starz episode 8, Both sides Now) during the assault by the redcoat deserter. She wears virtually no makeup, nor is any required in my opinion! Her skin is very pale, very clear and her nose and cheeks are endowed with a faint sprinkle of freckles.    Claire also looks very vulnerable, very young and absolutely LOVELY despite the unspeakable situation she finds herself in! I can say this without prejudice because I am an anatomist! Ye ken?

image

But, the ultimate proof comes from Jamie himself: in Outlander, he tells Claire that she has skin like an “opal” as he slowly traces a finger along her collar bone making her skin glow beneath his touch! And, again from our hero:

“Mo duinne,” he said softly. “But now I should say mo airgeadach. My silver one. Your hair is silver-gilt and your skin is white velvet. Calman geal. White dove”.

Again, no images to match the words, so let’s use this lovely substitute!

image

Hey! Mukker! Are ye still wit’ me?! One last image before we git on to our science lesson! In Starz episode 3, The Way Out, Claire is summoned by the MacKenzie. Colum removes his kilt asking her to massage his aching legs. He also asks Mistress Beauchamp if she sews as well as physicks to which Claire responds: “only flesh, a rather poor garment, I’m afraid.” My cue! Weel, I am athinkin’ that Claire’s answer to Colum was deliberately a wee bit coy and evasive because she would know that skin is NO a puir garment at all!

image

So, now we segue into Anatomy Lesson #5, The Skin…folks, I am here to tell ye that the skin is absolutely a remarkable garment! Ye will no be amiss to think of it as your own personal space suit that enables you to live a terrestrial rather than an aquatic life!  It is also the major barrier between a rather inhospitable world and yer insides! Yes, it gets diseased and injured because we are mortal, after all. But, it serves us verra well so please read on!

If ye are squeamish, ye may wish to skip the next image or heed Dougal’s advice…

image

A few years back, German anatomist, Professor Gunther von Hagens brought his world-renown Body Worlds exhibit to my neck of the woods. I was privileged to deliver the key note lecture before the event and was Professor of Anatomy on opening night where I gave mini-lectures and answered questions posed by attendees. Of the many extraordinary figures at that exhibit was one of a man holding his own skin and gazing at it in awe (Photo A). I hope after reading this post, you too will view your own skin with the awe it so richly deserves!

image Photo A

First off, skin is an organ. Yes, it is! It is also the heaviest organ of the human body! Really, ye say? Yup, it accounts for at least 8% of our body weight (some studies claim as much as 16%) and covers a surface area of about 20 ft2 or 1.9 m2! Want to determine the weight of your own skin? It’s simple! Just multiply your weight in pounds or kilos by .08 – the answer is the approximately the weight of your own skin!

Skin also produces all of our body hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, the female breasts and the male nipples and areolas.  All of these appendages are skin derivatives and therefore part of the organ itself. Earlier, I mentioned Claire’s hair and now ye ken why because hair is part of the skin. But, as Claire’s hair makes for an interesting subject in its own right, I will address hair in my next post: The Skin – Part 2! And won’t it be fun to see the Outlander Starz results in it’s “hair as a character” poll this Saturday!

image

Ok, this next one is a gratuitous shot…sorry I just canna help it! Weel, not entirely gratuitous – it does show hair and skin and one other thing I havna yet told ye: the enamel of the teeth is derived from modified skin of the mouth. Geez, even his teeth are gorgeous! Get a grip prof! Focus!

image

Ahem…now, back to the lecture! Skin thickness varies throughout the body; some skin is thick for protection such as on the soles of our feet or thin as on our eyelids where thickness is not required. Skin is also more heavily pigmented in some areas (nipple and areola) than in others (belly). Most of the skin bears either fine or coarse hairs but some areas are completely devoid of hair: the so-called glaborous surfaces of the body such as the palms and soles where hair, if present, would interfere with grip.

Skin is composed of two important layers: a thin outer epidermis that sits atop a thicker inner dermis (See photo C). Deep to the dermis is the hypodermis; although not part of the skin, it is important because it helps anchor the skin to underlying structures such as muscle or bone (Photo B). In addition, some skin structures are actually anchored in the hypodermis.

imagePhoto B

The epidermis is composed of skin cells and some other cell types. It also completely replaces itself about every four weeks, with new cells forming at the base and advancing toward the surface where they die and slough. So, cells at the skin surface are flat and dead – these cells exfoliate naturally (did ye know that a large portion of house dust is shed skin cells?) or ye pay for exfoliation by costly products or at expensive salons (Photo C – this 3-D image was taken with a powerful scanning electron microscope or SEM)!  The supporting dermis houses two types of sweat glands, sebaceous glands, blood vessels, hair follicles, and special microscopic endings for sensation.

image Photo C

So what about sweat glands? The skin actually includes two different types: apocrine sweat glands are present only in the arm pits (axilla in anatomy, remember?) and our private regions (perineum in anatomy). The thicker sweat from these glands is initially odorless but when acted on by skin bacteria, it develops a pungent, acrid smell. This is the unwashed male that Claire muses on while sharing Jamie’s mount (Outlander book) – although females most certainly battle the same issue! A second type, the eccrine sweat gland, is ubiquitous throughout the remaining skin; sweat from this gland is watery and usually exudes an ammonia smell. Photo D shows the multiple openings (pores) of eccrine sweat glands on the finger pad.

image

Photo D

The process of sweating from eccrine sweat glands is captured in Photo E.  Here, following exercise, blue sweat droplets bead on skin from the back of the hand. This 3-D photo was again taken the powerful SEM. The colors, however, are not real – they were computer generated.

image

Photo E

As fer the sebaceous glands, I’ll be leaving those until my next post: The Skin – Part 2! Next, a question commonly asked by students: what causes the wide variation in human skin tones (see Photo F)?

image

Photo F

Weel, it turns out that there are a number of reasons for our individual skin color.  One cause is the number of blood vessels in the dermis and the color of blood surging through them (bright red arterial blood versus duskier venous blood).  Just fer fun, let’s compare and contrast the color of Claire skin wit’ that of Jamie’s in this image from Starz episode 1, Sassenach. We clearly see Claire’s naturally cool and pale complexion but partly because she is royally pissed, holding herself aloof from all the male funnin’ goin’ on around her. But, Jamie’s skin is strikingly different! Although Jamie is splattered in blood and he has naturally ruddy skin, it is enhanced in this scene having exerted himself in battle and during Claire’s recapture so ye can bet at this point there’s a whole lot of bright red arterial blood circulating through the vessels of his dermis!

image

Another contribution to overall skin color depends on how much carotene we consumed in our diets: carotene is an orange pigment prevalent in fruits and veggies such as cantaloupe, sweet potato and carrot (Photo G). Carotene absorbed from our food gets deposited in the epidermis where it adds to skin color and also helps protect epidermal cells from damage by UV light.

image Photo G

But, the most significant contribution to skin color comes from special cells of the epidermis, the melanocytes (Photo H). These scattered squid-like cells produce and package the pigment, melanin, into granules that are released into surrounding skin cells. Interestingly, the number of melanocytes in a given region of the skin is the same regardless of skin tone or gender. So, differences in skin color are due mainly to differences in the number and size of the melanin packets produced and this in turn is determined by genetics! In darker skins, the melanin granules are larger, more numerous, persist longer and are distributed throughout the epidermis.  Pale skin has fewer, smaller melanin granules that are confined to cells at the base of the epidermis and degrade more quickly.

imagePhoto H

Ye can deliberately increase the production of melanin granules and darken existing melanin in yer own skin by exposure to UV light either from the sun or from tanning beds. I ken the beds are a very popular trend, but I want to WARN ye: For some very sound medical reasons, ye should NOT expose yer skin to UV light from tanning beds and ye should also be judicious about tanning from the sun’s rays too, especially if ye are fair of skin like Claire! I urge ye to get informed about it!

Now, ye are all are probably aware of albinism (Photo I), a condition affecting animals (humans, spiders, snakes, apes, etc.) where the sufferer lacks an enzyme needed to make melanin (albinism occurs in plants too but is due to an absence of chlorophyll). Albinos (Latin: albus for white) do NOT make any melanin in the skin, hair or the irises of the eyes!  This is a difficult condition because their eyes are highly sensitive to light (photophobia) and they have difficulty tracking the eyes normally. The skin is also highly susceptible to skin cancers!  It is a condition which, at present, has no cure but there are steps that can be taken to protect the skin and aide the eyes.

image Photo I

Finally our skin has a battery of sensory endings specialized to detect changes in our environment and transmit these to our nervous system. The fingertips alone have about 2500 of these receptors per cm2 (about 0.2 in2) of skin!  I’ll not show pictures of these endings because they are a wee bit too technical. In summary, then, here is a short list of what skin does for Claire and for us all!

  1. It is an anatomical barrier against pathogens and damage.
  2. It provides sensation in the form of pain, touch, pressure, heat, cold and vibration.
  3. It regulates our body temperature by dilating or constricting blood vessels in the dermis and cooling the skin by the evaporation of sweat.
  4. It helps control fluid loss.
  5. Helps synthesize vitamin D via UV radiation.
  6. It aids in excretion of waste products.
  7. It aids in communication: others assess our mood, physical state or attractiveness by the state of our skin.

Impressed yet? I know I am and I’ve been teaching this subject for a verra long time!

Speaking of mood, let’s close wit’ this touching image from Starz episode 7 The Wedding, where Jamie pays homage to the skin of his bride of astonishing beauty with a soft murmur and a tentative touch!

image

Aye, Jamie, ye are ready!  And, so is Claire – she sure took long enough!  Snort!

I do hope ye have a better understanding and appreciation of the skin ye are in and have an increased desire to take verra good care of it!

A wee note of explanation: I will also continue my convention of typically using the character’s names rather than the names of the actors. This gives the cast at least one degree of separation and a wee bit o’ respect as I dissect their bodies on a blog! I hope ye all understand.

The deeply grateful,

Outlander Anatomist

Images are from Starz Outlander series. Microscopic images and drawings from Netter’s Atlas of Human Anatomy, 4th ed., Bailey’s Textbook of histology, 10th ed. or Bloom & Fawcett’s Concise Histology, 2nd ed, and the National Geographic, Skinned man from Body Worlds exhibit (sans the fig leaf), CGI image of epidermis and dermis from Loyola University Dermatology website, Baby photo from an older United Colors of Benneton ad, Photo of carrots from Gov. of West Australia and fig leaf from ClipArt, Archival photo of albino man taken by an unknown photographer – beginning of the 20th century.